Child Labour Essay Example for Free

Child Labour Essay I.INTRODUCTION In a developing country like the Philippines, the child labor phenomenon remains widespread. Today, we find hundreds of thousands of Filipino children being deprived of the oppurtunity to share in the prospects of development. The door of the opportunity is close on them simply because their â€Å"childhood is wasted in premature work (ILD 1994) rather than nurtured in school and at play. And doubtedly, many stand witnesses to this bleak scenario in the workforce. How the lives of this children are apparently placed at risk and how they are clearly cheated of their basic rights and privileges have stimulated a sounding call for an immense public awareness and a prolific action on the child labor issue. Child labor is a â€Å"long standing problem† (ILO 1993: 26), that has been rapidly creaping from the midst of economic, social, and moral crisis. Hence, this papers generally aims to propagate awerness about child labor particularly, the current situation her in 6the Philippines. It has three major objectives. First, it intense to present current facts and data about the child labor condition in the Philippines. Second, it attempts to discuss significant points about the child labor issue. And finally, it aims to waken concern individuals and bring fort a worth while realization, concern, and utmost action and this matter. A.What is child labor? Filipinos re smilingly wide aware of the prevalence o child labor here in the Philippines yet, knowingly or unknowingly, many remain inadequately informed and aware of child labor’s real score. The idea of child labor would concretely leads us to a common general notion, that is, children being abuse through forced labor. This is the concept, which inevitably sticks to anyone who hears about the issue. Hence, we must remember that child labor implies a broader concern so purposely, there is much to be adhered about child labor and what it substantially means. To further understand this concern, let us set answers to these questions: When is child labor considered ethical? Illegal? Child work refers to gainful work of children below15 years of age ( Torres 1995 :2). It means the production of goods and services either on a full-time or part-time basis as performed by children in both the formal and informal sectors. Recent studies in the Philippine noted child participation in the following areas of work: agricultural plantations, small handicraft shops, home-based sub-contracting industries, commercial establishments, household’s street trades, and other small-scale business ventures. Work among children, is not wrong. Children, as part of the traditional Filipino culture are taught to work at an early age by their families. This true particularly in Philippine agricultural communities were farming is considered a family affair and the farm household is equivalent to one production unit (Torres 1995:2). Work for children however, becomes unacceptable and objectionable if it falls under any of the following circumstances. One, if the work is hazardous to the help and morals of the children such as night work, heavy work, or work in the streets which exposes the children to drug abuse and sexual encounters. Two, if the conditions of work are exploitative, as in instances when they require long working hours, provide low pay, and are used as substitute for adult labor. And lastly, if the work prevents children from obtaining education which is their right and privilege in any society (Torres 1995: 2). Child labor is the illegal employment of children below the age of 15, where they are not directly under the sole responsibility of their parents or illegal guardian or the latter employs other workers, apart from their children, who are not members of their families or their work endangers their life, safety, health, and morals or impairs their normal development including schooling. It also includes the situation of children below the age of 18 who are employed in hazardous conditions. (Representatives 1994:3) B.What is current child labor situation in the Philippines? The current child labor situation in the Philippines has recently raced enormous concern. In the 1995 Children Survey conducted by DOLE, results revealed that about three in every twenty children have worked in the past year. Males compromised two-thirds of the working children. The proportion of working males increases with age. Looking at the sex ratio, the ratio of working male to every one hundred working female increases from 171 for age group 5 to 9 years to 181 for age group 10 to14 years. The absolute increase doubles as the children reach the working age of 15. For age group 15 to17, there are 200 working males for every 100 working females or 2 males for every1 female. (NSO 1995). Working male children out number females in both urban and rural areas. 2/3 of working children lives in the rural areas. This maybe due to unpaid farm work participated in by family members during planting and /or harvesting seasons. Based on the1995 children of the Philippines Survey, Only 69.8% reported to have attended school during school years 1994-1995 and 1995 to 1996. They compromised mostly of male working children (62.5%), out numbering the female working children (38.5%). Working children from the rural areas have higher school attendance (67.3%) tha those from the urban areas (32.7%). Most of these working children reported the same kind of problems encountered in schooling. Ranked, as the first three problems were high cost of school supplies/books/transportation’s, school distance from the residence is too far, and difficulty in catching up with lessons (NSO 1995). Working children inevitably experience multiple work-related problems. Only 2 out of 10 children express that they did not encounter any problem in relation to their work. The rest, however, said that they experienced one or more work –related problems. Among these problems experienced by them are  coming home exhausted from work, doing heavy physical work, work being stressful, boredom from work and that their work is risky or dangerous. (NSO1995). Children remained in the workforce for a common significant reason. Survey results showed that majority or 60.1% of the total working children who prefer to remain in the workforce sited improvement in the living conditions of their households as the main reason for working. In the urban areas, only 56.4% cited improvements in living conditions as the main reason while in the rural areas, the proportion reaches 62%. This is following the notion that families in the urban areas have better living conditions than those in the rural areas. These facts and data justify the growing concern of children labors prevalence to the present Philippine society. C.Why is child labor very rampant in our Philippine society now a days? The prevalence of child labor in the Philippines has been attributed to multiple factors. While poverty is apparently the principal factor. The Philippines being a third world country, â€Å"Child labor is symptomatic of broader social disorganization resulting from urbanization, industrial development, and economic recession, and the shifting models of production† (Torres 1995: 3). With the advent of economic globalization, awareness of the incidence of child labor in the third world nations is growing rapidly in the industrialize counties as the Philippines. Hence, Many Filipino many children work for the very reason that their families are poor. Though poverty is the most significant cause of child labor, other factors greatly contribute as well. Cultural values may also drive children in to employment. Children in Filipino farm agricultural households are expected to participate in farm production. Parents also affirmed that teaching children hoe to work is important and they introduce â€Å"Work – related task as if it work play activities† (Torres 1995: 3). This scenario is likely triggered by the traditional Filipino values of close families ties and  kinship by which each family member is expected to contribute to help keep the family moving and survive. These persuasions make easier for children to accept work as part their routine. It is also a question of social attitudes. The fact that many children work because there is a little else they can do is an educator of ill social attitudes. Schools are unavailable, in adequate or expensive; the education, which is provide is a related to the world of work. The structural adjustments program, which many third world countries have under taken, has also unfortunately ment as serious cut back in investment in the social sector. Political condition also interacts with economic factors that make child labor possible. Counter-insurgency campaigns have lead to dislocation of families, and the lost of parents forcing children to work for their own survival. Undoubtedly, many Filipino children are victims of this grim political manipulation. On the demand side, research show that many children hired because they are more easily exploited than adults are. Employers prefer children because they are docile, In capable of collective bargaining and willing to work to support their family or simply to survive. To have child labor means lower cost because children never complain with very low wages (Weissman 1997: 18). All these, including other minor factors, play a productive part in rapid increase of child labor cases in the country. D.What is the risk faced by working children? Working children inevitably faced intolerance risk. Of millions of children who are working many toil in â€Å"Slave-like† (ILO 1993:54) or Hazardous conditions. There are all too many children in the work force that faced physical risk and hazard to their physical, social, intellectual and psychological development. Survey results revealed that many Filipino working children have suffered from work –related injuries such and other  various risks are affected by this condition: The attention span of children is usually limited and their judgement of dangerous situations may not be to develop. As they are not experience enough to cope with job responsibilities, ling hours of work and other job stresses that normal adults can cope within their daily chores, the impact of psychosocial stresses on a child in understandable more pronounced (GUST 1993:78). In the mere sense, the consequences are intolerably traumatic and devastating. These case of Filipino child: A Filipino, barely ten years old, lost her sight, when another worker carelessly threw his cigarette but near a mound of gun powder that she was inserting into colorful bits of paper. The gunpowder exploited and with it went her sight. Working in sub-human conditions, these children’s health soon gave way†¦ (Junior citizen Ed. 1996:2). Many types of work affect the intellectual and psychosocial development of the child.† Work is detrimental to a child if it deprives him of his normal leisure, play and recreation, worse if he is deprived of his basic rights of education, parenting, and protection â€Å" (Gust 1993:78). Such adverse conditions have been observed in bonded labor such as seen in feudalistic agriculture, in the participation of children in Muru-ami fishing and in domestic work. The projected psychological effects on working children was shown in this specific study: A study on the psychological profile of ten scavenger children from the Smoky Mountain in the Philippines was conducted in 1992. The results showed low levels of intellectual functioning of the scavengers of different age levels. It also demonstrated and inverse relationship between age and intelligence quotient. That is, the intellectual scores of children decreased as age increased. To a certain point, there can attributed to the  children’s preoccupation with survival and lack of learning opportunities. (Gust 1993:81) Aside from these risks, we cannot do away with the fact that poor working conditions of children often bring along infectious illnesses. Combined with malnutrition, toxic substance used at work affect several organ systems like the brains and nerves sometimes irreversibly. Some researchers make then point that the unhealthy sanitation, over crowding, poor ventilation, and extremes of temperatures in the work environment are aggravated by poor conditions in the living environment therefore, making working children more susceptible to new infectious illnesses and injuries, and other work-related ailments. Descriptive studies of hazardous and demonstrates the different types of risks: First, there is the â€Å" hazardous process†. Muro-ami fishing which practice in few fishing towns involves deep-sea diving without the use of protective equipment. This method was reported as a notoriously hazardous process resulting in drowning, deaths and rapture eardrums. Second, there is the exposure of children to adverse physical working environment. Exposure to organic dust is widespread in farms and plantations and tha prevalence of respiratory diseases is high. Children also work in repair shops, woodwork and in construction with constant exposure to dust and fumes. Third, children are exposed to dangerous substances in both formal and informal sectors. No personal protective equipment’s where given to the children who often handle chemicals with bare hands which was seen among those working in scavenging, in dumpsites, in gold processing, in leather industry, in garage, and in gasoline work. (Gust 1993: 80) No work is too difficult for these children despite the great risk on their lives. Nevertheless, this makes child labor a visible act of exploitation. E. How can we eliminate child labor in our Philippine society? The problem is huge, needless to say, the weapon in store must be equally extensive if not, stronger than the problem itself. All working children are basically at risk: the ultimate object of society should therefore be the elimination of child labor. However, the problem of child labor will not be solving overnight. It is â€Å"a large and complex problem† (ILO1994: 4). Some aspects of which are probably not yet capable of solution, for example, until a better knowledge and understanding can be gained, or until further progress has been made in addressing underlying social, cultural or economic factors. Given the multiple, over lapping causes at child labor, no single approach will and the scourge (Weissmen! 997:16). The resources available for combating child labor are glaringly in adequate when set against the magnitude of the problem. But no progress will be made at all unless start is made somewhere. Ideally, the Philippine government has already recognize the need to establish priorities and the Philippine plan of action for children has set targets for the protection and rehabilitation of abuse and exploited working children and for banning of children in hazardous occupations or situations, with priority being accorded to disadvantaged, depressed, and undeserved families and communities. The Government-UNICEF child labor Plan of Operation also establishes priorities for action. There emphasis action at the local level, without which no strategy to combat child labor will be effective. And with the formation of the â€Å"Sagip Batang Manggagawa†, and Inter-agency Quick Action Program (SBMQAP), the Philippine government has apparently taken the challenge in astounding force. The said program is established to respond to cases of child laborers in extremely object conditions and shall be responsible for the provision of various services in relation to the search and rescue operation. Elimination of child labor may justify seem impossible. Truly, our chances are slim, but there is hope. With these dynamic forces at hand, we can all look forward to a better and ideal future for the Filipino children. II. CONCLUSION: Child labor is an apparent hindrance to the economic, social, and moral development of the people and this country. This very uncharacteristic scenario in the workplace gradually yet tremendously cripples the country’s economy, destroys the ethical course of society, and deflates the standards of moral values. Nevertheless, â€Å"that trend is a human tragedy†(Senser 1997: 18). A manifestation of the world’s cruelty to the young and the innocent is what child labor is at its least. The children, being â€Å"the most vulnerable group in the society, who are unfortunate victims of this inhuman condition have been greatly deprived of the incalculable chances they ought to venture. Sad to say, our very own Philippine society has failed to provide the teeming Filipino children that exceptionally ideal community they all deserve. Yet, what soothes us the least is the fact that the child labor situation in our country has not been left in the rug and forgotten. After all, we dream of nothing less butter to hold strong in our pursuit of saving the Filipino children from falling into this bleak exigency. â€Å" Let not young souls be smothered out before. They do quaint deeds and fully flaunt their price. It is the world’s one crime its babes grow dull† (Linsay1997: 9) Bibliography :  ·Gust, E. 1993. Safety and Health Hazards to Working Children, Bangkok: International Labour Office  ·International Labour Organization. 1994 . Attacking Child Labour in the Philippines: and Indicative frame work for Philippine-ILO Action Geneva ; International Labour Office  ·International Labour Organization 1993. Inter-Regional workshop on Improvement of Effectiveness of Enforcement of Child Labour Legislation. Bangkok International Labour Office.  ·Lindsay, Vachel 1997 The Leaden- Eyed , Sunstar, May24, page 9.  ·National Statisticas office. Children of the Philippines Manila 1995  ·Senser, Robert A. 997 Global Economy and Child labor. Sunstar, May 26 pages 1 and 8.

An Environmental Risk Assessment Environmental Sciences Essay

An Environmental Risk Assessment Environmental Sciences Essay All over the world, rapid industrial development of metropolitan cities have always resulted in a growth in population and also in the general increase of the size of municipal solid waste generated. The management of municipal solid waste, if not handled properly, will lead to various problems now and in the future. Developed countries in the world have, to a large extent succeeded in handling their waste using various principles and methods. From suitable collection methods to technologically advanced disposal methods, they have made sure that municipal solid waste has been effectively controlled in their cities. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about other developing countries of the world. Developing countries such as Nigeria are still battling with municipal solid waste management. As a direct result of the oil boom, Port Harcourt city, the capital of Rivers State, Nigeria (which is the case study of this research work) has experienced a major rural- urban migration. The population has almost tripled over the years. This has, in turn, led to a massive increase in the sheer volume of solid waste generated within the city.. Approximately 168,201 tonnes of solid waste are produced in the city of Port Harcourt every year and waste disposal has not been effectively handled. Residents resort to indiscriminate discarding of their waste at every given opportunity The most common means of waste disposal in the city by the public are mainly by dumping the refuse by the road, burning the refuse in the open air in their compounds, littering it openly on street corners and also dumping them in rivers and streams and drainage systems. These methods of waste disposal contribute greatly to the degradation of the environment in so many ways. However, very little is done to reuse and recycle the solid waste generated. Research shows that a huge percentage of the public do not recycle and reuse their wastes which indicates that the awareness level of the public about reuse and recycling of waste in Port Harcourt city is very low and offers a lot of prospect for improvement. This study therefore investigates the reasons why proper waste disposal methods are neglected by residents of Port Harcourt. It also seeks to discover why the method of Reuse and Recycle of waste is not getting the awareness and Government support it greatly deserves. Recommendations were made about strategies that will allow the government and stakeholders involved to advance on modern methods of waste Reuse and Recycling as a core aspect of municipal solid waste management in the city. Through the use of data collated via questionnaires, it was gathered that a majority of respondents agree that reuse and recycling of waste can positively impact the environment, create revenue and also employment opportunities. It reconnoitres the link between reuse and recycling of solid waste as a means to create revenue and to ultimately achieve sustainable development in the future. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF STUDY According to Shah (2000), solid waste is defined as any material that is unwanted or thrown away. The general community views waste as something worthless that should be destroyed or thrown away. As such, proper disposal of waste has constituted huge disposal problems. People commonly dump their household solid waste on the road side, unapproved dumpsites and illegal landfills. This has brought about untold environmental pollution as well as major setbacks in societal development (Mbata 2010). Waste in general is a threat to the environment, because of its negative environmental impacts that result from littering, dumping of wastes illegally, and greenhouse gas emissions (Hosetti 2006). Waste contaminates ground water and can cause serious health hazards if not handled and managed properly. In developing countries like Nigeria and indeed Africa in general, industrial development has enhanced the problems of rapid urbanization. In Nigeria today, solid waste management is one of the principal problems faced by the state and local government authorities in Nigeria. Solid waste management in Nigeria is basically pigeon-holed by ineffective collection and disposal methods (Ogwueleka 2009). As such, Ogu (2000) observed that solid waste management continues to remain a formidable challenge to most developing countries. The progression of civilization in developing nations such as Nigeria has greatly enhanced waste generation; making it even more complex to handle (Jayarama, 2011). Owing to the growing population of Nigeria, the volume of waste produced is also increasing in metropolitan cities like Port Harcourt, especially as it is an oil producing area and the exploration of oil has led to an increase in movement of people from rural to urban areas (Odiba, 2009). This rapid expansion of key cities in Nigeria, like Port Harcourt, has led to the dilapidation of the environment mostly by domestic waste (Onyinlola, 2005). According to UNEP (2009) population growth and industrialization has resulted in rapid increase in the types and volume of solid waste generated therein. Research shows that relocation of the people from rural to urban areas does not only increase the revenue of the country, but also increases the total volume of municipal solid waste generated in such areas. (Adedokun, 2009). Municipal solid waste disposal methods are an aspect that raises serious concern in a third world country such as Nigeria. The common methods of solid waste disposal in some countries especially Nigeria is by landfill, open dumping on the streets, and by burning the waste in backyards or in an open space. Unfortunately, roughly 65% of household wastes are dumped straight into rivers or streams in Nigeria (Rakshit 2009). The use of dumpsites and landfills as waste disposal systems is yet another common means of waste disposal in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. This leads to very negative environmental impacts such as the emission of methane gas which contributes essentially to global warming and also reduces the amount of land available for development (Olowomeye 2010). Dumping of waste in landfills also leads to ground water contamination of the entire surrounding areas. Okosun(2011) also observed that uncontrolled dumping of wastes by roadsides results in various health hazards and reduces the aesthetic quality of the environment. Through research shows that the problems associated with waste disposal can be traced back to the 14th century when the littering of food waste and other solid wastes in the town led to the outbreak of diseases that caused the death of half of the Europeans at the time (Bortoleto 2011). Over the years, research has continually shown that the main reason for solid waste problems in urban areas of developing nations is due to high population growth rates and the prevailing poverty (Affun 2009). The economic and social growth of a country or city always results in increased production and manufacturing activities. This, in turn, leads to activities that are synonymous with human existence such as production, manufacturing, waste generation and disposal. As a direct result of the processes of manufacturing and disposal of consumables, there is a significant increase of the rate of pollution. This depletes valuable natural resources and also releases toxic energy which pollutes the environment, making sustainable development impossible to achieve. Sustainability as a word has always been used in our everyday lingo. According to Hideroni (2006) it is defined in a perspective of natural environmental protection, population growth and economic gap between developed and developing countries. Sustainable development entails an environmentally comprehensive, cost effective and socially suitable management of solid waste (Roberts, 2003). Sustainable development is a theory that has to be integrated into the everyday lives of the populace if we want to achieve a better quality of life for our unborn children (Dernbach, 2002). In the recordings of the International Council for Local Initiatives(ICLI),sustainable development is such that provides environmental, social and economic amenities to all citizens of the society without disrupting the capability of the natural built social systems upon which the delivery of these services depend on. The main aim of sustainable development is to regenerate the badly damaged environment and ensur e that generations unborn do not face the adverse effects of our neglect on the environment. Therefore, solid waste management with sustainable development in mind encourages countries to generate less waste, re-use most consumables, recycle and try their utmost best to recover and reuse all the waste produced, thereby ensuring that the future generation are not affected by the impacts of the current generation (Mbata 2010). Sustainable development is a concept that needs to be taken into attention for effective waste management. With regards to this, countries all over the world including Nigeria, are striving to achieving sustainability (Hasheela, 2009). Therefore, all necessary steps and precautions should be taken to achieve this goal PROBLEM STATEMENT Having a population of over 165million people and an annual growth rate of 5.6%, Nigeria is considered the largest country in Africa. Growth rate of urban areas in Nigeria has increased from 25% in 1975 to 46% in 1995(George,2010) Estimates by the World Bank indicate that by the year 2005, more than 65% of Nigerians would have migrated to urban areas such as Lagos, Port Harcourt, Delta, Calabar and Abuja (Alkali, 2005). The cause for this relocation is essentially due to oil exploration activities of oil companies in these areas. As a result of this, the wastes generated from these areas have been on the increase and its disposal and effective management is a huge challenge to the government and municipalities involved. It can be observed that the major problem associated with solid waste management comes about due to the large heaps of refuse dumped illegally by the road sides and market places (Odiba 2003). As horrid as it sounds, it is still common practise in Nigeria to dump wast e illegally without thinking of the impact of such practices on our environment. Waste management problems in Nigerian cities according to (Ogwueleka 2009) are typically associated with lack of concern and participation from the general public. He further stated that most of the waste policies are made without putting the public, who are the main waste generators, into thought. The manner, in which waste is controlled in Port Harcourt, Nigeria (the study area) is a big threat to the environment and can cause health hazards (Hasheela2009). A plethora of health hazards such as malaria fever, typhoid fever, diarrhoea, cholera and even skin diseases have been shown to be the effects of poor waste management in any environment (Guobadia 2011). It is needless to say that ineffective waste management is a big danger to the goal of sustainable development and if no positive advances are made in the area of managing waste, there will be catastrophic, long term environmental impacts on the people now and generations unborn. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES AIM The principal aim of this project is to examine and discover the various ways how the Reuse and Recycling of Municipal Solid Wastes can lead to sustainable development and revenue generation. To establish, through comprehensive analysis and statistical analysis that waste Reuse and recycling the most suitable method of Municipal Solid Waste Management in a developing country such as Nigeria and can ultimately lead to Sustainable development. Objectives To evaluate the various already existing techniques/methods of Municipal Solid waste collection and disposal in Port Harcourt city and Nigeria as a whole. To determine, based on an Environmental Risk Assessment, the most significant waste related risk currently in the case study area (Port Harcourt) To appraise the present level of awareness shown by the public and the current efforts of the government in creating more awareness and providing environmental education to members of the public on efficient, environmental friendly methods of waste disposal such as Reuse and recycling. To explore the barriers that prevents the reusing and recycling of the major components of Municipal solid waste such as paper waste, plastic waste. To deal with Solid waste reuse and recycling as important aspects of national economy and environmental as a means of sustainable development and revenue generation. Research Questions This study is concerned with achieving sustainable development and potential revenue generation through Reuse and Recycling as a method of Municipal Solid Waste Management. It will seek to answer the following: Why is there a need to reuse and recycle municipal solid waste? In what ways can Reuse and recycling of municipal solid waste lead to the achievement of sustainable development? Can Revenue generation be guaranteed through the continuous use of reuse and recycling as the core method of municipal solid waste management? 1.5 Significance of study Sustainable development is the ultimate goal of every society and should be pursued with all diligence. This research highlights the significance of municipal solid waste (such as paper glass and plastics) as useful resources through reuse and recycling towards Sustainable development and revenue generation for Port Harcourt city and Nigeria as a country. 1.6 Scope and limitation of study This project work was limited to only the processes of reuse and recycling of municipal solid waste as a means to sustainable development in Port Harcourt city. Only recyclable waste such as plastics, paper and glass were used as a case study because they are the major waste materials found in municipal solid waste in Port Harcourt. However, all other processes of municipal waste management such as composition, collection, transportation and disposal were also looked to during the course of this research. 1.7 Structure of Study Chapter 1 gives an introduction to the research, covers the background of the study, discusses its aims and objectives, and also proposes relevant research questions. Chapter 2 details the literature reviews of municipal waste management, views reuse and recycling as a means for sustainable development and revenue generation, and also the present-day situation of waste management in Nigeria Chapter 3 shows the methodology employed for achieving the set aims and objectives of the study. Chapter 4 discusses the results and draws conclusions from the data generated. Chapter 5 finally discusses the summary findings, shows the researchers conclusions and his suggested recommendations for the best way forward. d recommendations for the best way forward. CHAPTER TWO Literature Review 2.1 Definition of Waste Waste is a direct consequence of human existence and activity. It can be said to be totally unavoidable. Different definitions of waste abound. It is, however, important to state that the term waste is very subjective. This is because, what one person may consider as waste can be viewed as an object of high value by another person.(Ajomo, 2010). A very strict legal definition of waste to comply with the law is therefore necessary; as such firm definitions of waste have legal, financial and social implications for the government, local authorities, businesses, and the general public (Williams 2005). In common parlance, waste can be defined as any product or material that is unwanted. Wright (1990) describes waste as anything that has lost its utility value in the sight of the original owner and everyone else in general. However, the European Council framework Directive (waste Framework Directive 75/442/EEC 1975) offers a legal definition of waste. It defines waste as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦any material where the holder has an intention to discard the material as no longer part of the normal commercial cycle of the chain of utility This is the universally recognised definition of waste. Different countries may have slightly different deviations of this definition based on their laws, culture and prevailing times, circumstances and practices. According to the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), under the auspices of Provision Decree 42 of 1988, waste is said to be substances or objects which are disposed of, or are intended to be disposed of, or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of the law of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Omobolaji, 2010) 2.2 Classification of waste There are different types of wastes that can be found all around us. Different nations define/classify waste according to the state in which the waste is formed i.e. solid, gas or liquid or the way the waste is generated. Based on this, waste can be classified Industrial waste, household wastes, medical waste, construction waste, commercial wastes, radioactive wastes, etc. However, in general terms, all these types of wastes can be classed into two main kinds, namely Controlled and Uncontrolled wastes: Controlled Waste Controlled wastes, according to the provisions of the Control of Pollution Act !974 (COPA) are said to be mainly Household waste commercial/ industrial wastes. It is a UK term covering waste subject to a duty of care under the Environmental Protection Act of 1990. Industrial Wastes: these are wastes that are generated as a direct result of industrial practices. They include waste thermoplastics, waste wood cuttings and trimmings etc. However, they do not include plastic medical waste, waste steel cuttings and waste paper (Environmental Law Library 2010). Commercial Wastes: They are the various waste materials gotten from trade and business buildings and activities. Household Wastes: Are those waste products generated from activities inside a residential house. Examples of this kind of wastes are garden waste, paper and cardboard, glass, food remnants, wood etc. Non-Controlled waste Non controlled wastes are classified as those waste products that are not under the direct control and jurisdiction of the appropriate local authority. These kinds of wastes include wastes that are as a direct result of mining and quarrying activities, and agricultural wastes and also, radioactive wastes (Wright, 2003) Agricultural Wastes: These wastes are primarily the types that arise from agricultural activities such as livestock litter. They also include waste pesticides asbestos roofing material and also waste oil coming from machinery, chemicals with hazardous properties etc. Radioactive Wastes: these refer to waste that contain radioactive materials. They usually originate from nuclear power plants, or industries that emit radioactive substances or compounds during the course of their operations( Barnstein,2009) http://www.eauc.org.uk/image_uploads_waste/wasteclassificationframework_large.jpg Figure 2.2.1 Classifications of Wastes (Source: EAUC, 2009) 2.3 Municipal Solid Waste Management Municipal solid waste (MSWs) refers to all the solid waste generated within a given municipality. They are primarily organic and inorganic in nature and are produced in residential homes, office complex, shops, hospitals etc. Although everybody in the society has the duty to dispose of refuse in a decent manner, municipal solid waste is usually the responsibility of the local government authorities (Okogbue, 2001). Municipal solid waste is those wastes collected by metropol5ises independent of the main source of waste (Bernstein, 2009). Such wastes include household wastes; waste produced by business buildings and small neighbourhood stores. They do not, however, include waste from industrial practices or agricultural solid waste (Filemon, 2008) In the words of Robert Klein (2002) municipal solid waste refers to the assemblage, transfer, treatment, recycling, and disposal of solid waste in urban areas. The goal of municipal solid waste management are targeted at promoting the quality of the urban environment, generate employment and income, and protecting environmental health (Ogwueleka, 2009). According to Kit Strangen (2002), municipal solid waste may comprise of some, if not all of the following items: Street garbage/litter or sweepings. Household waste (usually generated from recycling and composting waste deposited by house residents at waste disposal sites). Hazardous waste (in small quantities gotten from households) Garden/green waste and Bulky solid waste also generated from households. Municipal Solid Waste management can be said to encompass all the activities that has to do with handling all the waste generated within a municipality, from the point of source, to the final point of disposal. In the words of McGraw(1993), municipal solid waste management is the discipline attendant with the control of the generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing and control of disposal of solid waste in a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental considerations and that is also responsive to public attitudes Bloomberg (1989) described solid waste management as the discipline that deals with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in agreement with the best principles of public health, economics, preservation, aesthetics and other environmental concerns and that is also responsive to public expe ctations and outlooks. The United Nations (1997) defines solid waste management as the entire process of control and supervision of solid wastes from its point of generation to its end point of disposal. 2.4 Principles of Waste Management Solid waste management has been said to refer to all activities relating to the control, assortment, relocation, treatment and handling of solid waste in agreement with the best values of public living and other environmental considerations (Shan, 2000). Therefore, operative principles of waste management comprises of waste prevention, reduction, recycling, treatment and disposal in the environment (Shan, 2000). Failure to effectively manage waste in the environment leads to rapid degradation and it poses long term problems to everyone. Research has shown that, in order to successfully manage waste and minimise the damaging effects it has on the environment, some strategies should be adopted and implemented: Waste Recovery (waste recycling, re-use and treatment) Prevention of waste generation Environmentally friendly Waste disposal. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Waste_hierarchy.svg/300px-Waste_hierarchy.svg.png Figure 2.4: Waste Management Hierarchy (Source: Liennmann, 2009) These strategies are aimed at reducing the overall amount of waste produced by encouraging proper management of waste. It also aims at recovering as much value as possible from all the waste generated. As shown on figure 2.4, waste prevention should ideally be the first approach to waste management before other options are considered (Klein, 2000). Effective implementation of this waste management hierarchy will lead to a reduction in the volume of the final waste disposed (Hasheela 2009). Magali and Bodart (2010) suggested that for sustainable development to be achieved, waste management activities should be dedicated towards waste reduction, which is at the top of the hierarchy, using the very practicably best environmental choices. Therefore the main aim of the waste management hierarchy is the reduction of waste at source. Waste recovery and reuse should be the secondary aim as they involve other processes such as recycling, composting, and recovery of energy. However, recent studies have shown that the waste management hierarchy strategy is not the most effective. This is because it is not based on any scientific principle.it cannot specifically choose the best system for a city or country to adopt. For example, the waste management strategy cannot equate composting and incineration; or recycling and landfilling in terms of their environmental impacts and cost (Letcher, 2004). This goes to show that the waste hierarchy should be followed flexibly as a guide rather than rigidly in order to achieve a stable environmental, economic and social solution (Raven, 2011) Aside from the above mentioned constraint, implementing this strategy in a developing country such as Nigeria will be difficult. This is because of the prevailing norms of illegal refuse disposal all across the nation. It will therefore entail adequate environmental awareness/education for the public. More so, stringent environmental laws and regulations should be implemented by all concerned. 2.4.1 Prevention of Waste Waste prevention remains the best form of waste management because it is the most effective way of reducing the amount of waste that is generated. It is also the most environmental friendly means has it has absolutely no effect on the environment. It reduces pollution, saves electricity and saves far more energy than all other means of waste prevention (Vallero, 2004). Finkbeiner (2003) stated that the number one priority in waste management should be waste prevention as it is the best way to stop the accumulation of waste and a reduction of loss of resources. This process should be started at the source of production. The primary approach of waste prevention and reduction is for the manufacturers to redesign and package their products with the lowest toxicity and least volume of material. Industrialist and households can also reduce their waste by selective buying and recycle of some products and materials (Angell, 1995). It can be said that waste reduction depends mainly on the consumers and the choices they make. As such production and manufacturing companies should adopt cleaner trends in the production process. They should also try to encouragement the consumers choice to support less wasteful products and services (CEC 2001). This can be achieved through the use of clean technology. Their ability to choose sustainable products that have the least negative effect on the environment is the key to sustainable waste management (Spoolman, 2008). 2.4.2 Recovery of Waste/Energy Recovery is a waste management method whereby the biological, physical or chemical essence of a waste product is altered in order to reduce the effect of such waste on the environment (Cheremisinoff, 2003) Energy can be recovered through various means; example chemical, thermal, physical and biological processes. Some waste management strategies for recovery of energy include: Composting: This is an environmental friendly way of decreasing the volume of waste produced and also producing fertilizer (Bertoldi, 2006). Because of the low negative impact it has on the environment, the European Union has rated this method of waste disposal very high (DEFRA, 2006). It is a microbial based aerobic method that deals with the gains of resource efficiency and creates useful products from waste material that could have otherwise been discarded (USEPA 2011). The process of composting is particularly favoured for use in the tropical and hot climate countries. This is because of the high rate of biodegradation in those regions as a result of the climate. According to Tyler and Scott (1999) almost 70% of the waste streams in developing countries are compostable. The general procedure of composting is such that the organic ratios of municipal solid wastes is isolated from the inorganic portions and then laid bare to composting, this can be done in a mechanized fashion usin g machines and tools to handle the wastes and regulate the composting conditions. Composting can also be semi mechanized in which case the composting process is allowed to occur naturally and less machinery is used. Composting also removes the organic matter in the waste stream thereby improving the recycling and incineration processes. Nevertheless, a number of greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide etc. are released into the atmosphere during this process, among other things, hence it is obvious that composting has its negative environmental impacts. Incineration: Incineration is another method of reducing municipal solid waste. It essentially entails the combustion of waste materials with the use of an incinerator under temperatures of over 1000 Degree Celsius (Environmental Protection Department, 2005). During the incineration process, solid waste is sorted out on the basis of their combustibility. Thereafter, the combustible materials among the waste are thrown into the incinerator and burnt. Incineration of waste is a highly effective method of reducing waste as studies have shown that it reduces the amount of waste dumped in landfills by up to 80% volume and weight (Roberts, 1978). However, this method is quite capital intensive and also requires high maintenance cost and technical expertise. This is why it is only popular among developed nations and countries such as Nigeria do not readily practice it (World Bank, 2002). Anaerobic absorption : Anaerobic digestion is a biochemical procedure that takes place when there is an build-up of wet organic matter, in the lack of dissolved oxygen. Through the action of anaerobic microorganisms, organic matter is converted to water, methane and new cells. These are then collected and used as gaseous fuel while the soil dregs are used as soil conditioner. Anaerobic absorption also aids processes of landfilling by eliminating sticky organic waste materials that are responsible for gaseous and liquid radiations. It is normally carried out in close tanks that allow for the collection of large portions of biogas produced (Keller, 2007) Studies indicate that this process of waste management reduces the total volume and weight of waste generated by over 25% (Jason, 2009). It is fundamental to create renewable energy from biodegradable waste, rather than contributing to climate change through the release of methane gas that occurs during landfilling and incineration (Marek, 2007) According to EA (2001), methane gas is 20mtimes more potent than CO2 as a greenhouse gas. The residue gathered from anaerobic absorption comes in both liquid and solid form. This residue is known as digestate and is used to condition the soil and also as a fertilizer. This by-product is used widely on farms in countries like Germany, Sweden, and Austria. (Hardtle,2007) propounds that about 0.46% of electricity needed in the UK can be generated through the anaerobic digestion of food waste. Unfortunately, the usage of anaerobic absorption in developing countries like Nigeria is very limited due to lack of expertise, technology and the relevant infrastructure. Landfilling: For landfilling, the solid waste is dumped and spread over the land and is left for its transformation to humus. This is attained by the biodegradation of the waste matter. Landfilling is the final step in the disposal of waste that cannot be treated or recycled, together with other residues from waste that cannot be collected, separated or handled in any other way (Nemerow,2007) There are three types of landfill carried out in Africa today, namely open or dump landfill, semi controlled or operated landfill and sanitary landfill. Open /dump landfill is the most crude form of landfilling and that is the one still being practiced in most developing countries

Alexander the Great :: essays research papers fc

Alexander the Great Introduction Alexander III was born on July 20th, 356 BC to King Philip II and Olympia’s. He was born in Pella, Macedonia. In 343 BC Aristotle was hired to educate Alexander at the age of 13. In 338 he commanded for the first time the Calvary during the battle of Chaeronea. Alexander ascends the throne of Macedonia in 336 BC after the murder of his father, King Philip II. 336-323 BC is when he started his empire, conquering kingdom after kingdom. Why was Alexander the Great? Alexander III was known as Alexander the Great to his people from 336-323 BC. Why to this day do we still look at Alexander the Great as one of the greatest rulers of the world? Even though Alexander ruled for only 13 years as king of Macedonian what made him gain the title as Alexander the Great? Should he be known for it because of his military skills, his popularity with his people or his leadership skills? Why did Alexander deserve to be called â€Å"the Great†? He was not the first of his time to be called it. There were two others before him that were called the Great, the Persian King Cyrus the Great and the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses the Great. To this day his leadership skills are still considered by military experts as being the most outstanding commanders of all time. Alexander was able to motivate and inspire his troops to fight any battle for him by leading his troops, talked to every single troop and received the same wounds that they did. One thing that can only be marveled at is the over whelming factor, his charisma. He was the only individual that was able to hold together an empire together. After his death the empire fell apart into competing kingdoms. Alexander III is known to have helped shaped the world the way we know it today. Persians, Egyptians, Babylonians were eastern cultures that dominated the world until Alexander came into rule. He changed the focus on civilization from the eastern to the western societies, Greece and Rome. Alexander took the gold reserves of the Persian Kings and minted it into currency, using his resources to build new cities while continuing his conquest of other kingdoms. This enabled the Greek civilization to spread through out the known world and improving trade relations and activities. Alexander established an economic system that remained active until the industrial revolution in the 18th century.

Free Essays - The Dehumanization of Shylock in Merchant of Venice :: Free Merchant of Venice Essays

The Dehumanization of Shylock in Merchant of Venice In Susan Pharr's "The Common Elements of Oppression", she defines "the other" as the outcast of society, the ones who stand up for what they believe in, no matter how `against the grain' it may be, the ones who try the hardest to earn acceptance, yet never receive it. In Shakespeare's "Merchant of Venice", Shylock, the `villain' is portrayed as the other simply because of his faith, because he is Jewish in a predominantly Christian society. One way that Shylock is classified as the other was by being stripped of his name. Throughout the play, Shylock was very seldom referred to by name; in the trial scene, the Duke identifies him by name twice, and Portia does so once. During the rest of the play, Shylock is usually referred to as "the Jew", "dog Jew" (II, viii, 14), and "currish Jew" (IV, i, 292) Throughout the play, Shylock was often reduced to something other than Human. In many cases, even the simple title of "Jew" was stripped away, and Shylock was not a man, but an animal. For example, Gratiano curses Shylock with "O, be thou damned, inexecrable dog!" (IV, i, 128) whose "currish spirit govern'd a wolf" (IV, i, 133-134) and whose "desires are wolvish, bloody, starved, and ravenous" (IV, i, 137-138). Or when Shylock is neither a man nor an animal, he becomes "a stony adversary, inhuman wretch" (IV, i, 4-5). When the Christians applied these labels to Shylock, they effectively stripped him of his humanity, of his religious identity; he was reduced to something other than human. The Christians also labeled Shylock as explicitly equated with the Devil, which in a primarily Christian society left Shylock as the other. For example, in (II, ii, 24-28), Launcelot Gobbo identifies Shylock as "a kind of devil", "the devil himself", and "the very devil incarnation." Shylocks own daughter compared Shylock's house to "hell" (II, iii, 2). Salanio identifies Shylock as "the devil...in the likeness of a Jew" (III, i, 19-21) and Bassanio echoes this sentiment by identifying Shylock as a "cruel devil" (IV, i, 217). Antonio further cements the association between Shylock and the devil by noting how Shylock's arguments remind him how "The devil can cite scripture for his purpose" (I, iii, 97-100).

Solar Energy Essay example -- Environment, Solar Panels, Solar Water S

Solar energy can be used in different ways during the construction of houses in order to conserve energy. Solar energy comes as a gift of nature and this makes it even more economical to use in our buildings. It is not only free but unlike other sources of energy; it also limits the amount of pollution caused to the environment. When building our houses the goal according to David Johnston and Scott Gibson is to create a house that consumes at least fifty-two percent less energy than one built conventionally with a corresponding reduction in the heating and the cooling cost.(Johnston, Gibson 252)This can be done through use of solar panels, solar water systems and photovoltaic. The above all rely on one source: solar energy which comes as a gift of nature. Solar energy can be used to determine different things about our housing,† Solar energy figures out where our houses are to be located, the orientation towards the southern sun, where different rooms are and the size and placement of window overhangs.†(Johnston, Gibson 250)This small factors can determine how heated up our houses are or how easy it will be to cool our houses. It can also determine the amount of lighting that reaches our houses. â€Å"Sizing south glass to capture as much sunlight as possible. Blocking summer sunlight with roof overhangs, shades and trees or vegetation. Choosing building materials for their mass and their potential to store solar heat in winter and to keep houses cooler in the summer.......† (Johnston, Gibson 252) Solar water systems can be used to reduce the amount of energy used in the production of electricity in our homes. It is commonly used in countries like Australia, Japan and China. They are usually made in such a way that they del... ... of the government especially in the developing countries. The governments in some countries are trying to control this problem by giving rebates and tax returns to people who install energy conserving equipment. The cost of their installations may sometimes prove to be a major drawback. However, the actual benefit is realized as the years pass by because the electric bills will decrease significantly. In conclusion, solar energy is being used in production of electricity in our homes. It is also being used in different ways to try to minimize any energy use. There are both the advantages and drawbacks of using this source of energy but the pros usually out do the cons. Solar energy should be viewed as one of the sources of energy that we can rely on the future because unlike other sources, it will never be depleted the only thing we have to do is to apply it.

Increasing Unemployment Rate Essay

A record 202 million people could be unemployed across the world in 2013, the International Labour Organization (ILO) said on Tuesday. Five years on from the onset of the financial crisis, unemployment is on the rise again as economies around the world lose jobs and the fragile recovery is threatened by â€Å"incoherent monetary policy† in the US and Europe, said the ILO. According to United Nation’s agency’s latest report, Global EmploymentTrends 2013, 6% of the world’s workforce were without a job in 2012. The number of jobless people around the world rose by 4m in 2012 to 197m. Young people were the worst affected: nearly 13% of those under 24 were unemployed. Some 35% of all young unemployed people have been out of work for six months or longer in advanced economies, up from 28.5% in 2007. â€Å"This is a massive waste of the lives of young people and their talents and extraordinarily damaging to the people themselves and their societies even if stability were not to be affected,† said ILO chief Guy Ryder. The situation is being exacerbated by â€Å"incoherent monetary policy,† in the world’s largest economies (the G20), said the ILO. â€Å"In comparison with the crisis years of 2008 and 2009, the stance of monetary and fiscal policies in G20 countries has lost coherence, thereby increasing uncertainty and limiting policy effectiveness to support the recovery,† said the report. The global economy is expected to show a modest gain in 2013, with output up 3.6% compared to 3.3% in 2012, according to the International Monetary Fund. But this fragile recovery is threatened by political uncertainty on both sides of the Atlantic that threatens recovery worldwide, said the ILO. In the US, the recovery is being challenged by negotiations over the debt ceiling, and spending cuts associated with the fiscal cliff. In Europe, a modest recovery is dependent on the ability of political leaders to â€Å"establish credible policies to promote fiscal integration of Euro-area economies†. â€Å"Incoherence between monetary and fiscal policies adopted in different countries and a piecemeal approach to financial sector and sovereign debt problems, in particular in the euro area, have led to uncertainty weighing on the global outlook,† said the report. â€Å"Investment has not yet recovered to pre-crisis levels in many countries. The indecision of policymakers in several countries has led to uncertainty about future conditions, and reinforced corporate tendencies to increase cash holdings or pay dividends rather than expand capacity and hire new workers.† The world’s advanced economies were the epicenter for the financial crisis and have been the hardest hit, accounting for half of the total increase in unemployment of 28 million since the onset of the crisis. But developing economies are now being hit by the double dip in some of the world’s advanced economies, said the ILO. Advanced economies lost another 1m jobs in 2012, while 3m were lost in other regions, especially hard hit were east Asia, south Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Grab a copy of the March edition of La Vida Magazine and get the full story.

Ownership of Media Companies – Disney, the BBC and The Bath Chronicle

Disney’s a pubic company and is also a conglomerate it has a net income of around $4.555 billion and has share’s of 1.856 billion. As Disney is publicly owned it means that their disadvantage is that they have to follow many people or a charter like the BBC. They also have an disadvantage with limited liability as they are personal labially. Public companies also means they have another disadvantage as they have higher costs for the government which means they have higher taxes. Mainly they do have to share financial documents with the public which also means that competition does get to see there documents. Finally being a public company you dot have to ask lots of shareholders what they think. On the other hand the advantages could be that it provides more jobs. They have to provide a service for the whole country. Disney ventures Disney has many business venture’s and own many companies including 9 walt Disney picture companies for example Touchstone, 5 Disney music companies, Television channels, cable networks, ESPN, Disney interactive groups, holidays and theme parks. Disney are making so many things and spreading their wings into so many different business. With all these business’s it help’s Disney have a massive vertical integration. Disney is well renowned for it’s classical movies and recent movies from the likes of Snow White and Cinderella to Tangled and Princess and the frog. Disney also want’s to travel into different countries and they do this by making cultural movies and having Disney holidays, theme parks and cruises. Whilst Disney make’s many movies we love they have also been criticized for being sexist, ageism and sometimes racist, for example the villain is always old and the princess always being a type of housewife, for example Snow White cleaning the house. In films like Aladdin a song featured in the movie featured a quite rude ‘I come from a land†¦where they cut off your ears, if they don’t like your face. It’s barbaric, but hey, it’s home.’ When you think of Disney you think fun, light family entertainment not Disney being excused racist, sexism and ageism but in a quote this quote Michael Eisner explains â€Å"We have no obligation to make history. We have no obligation to make art. We have no obligation to make a statement. To make money is our only objective.† Disney use has very good vertical integration due to how many companies they own. Disney can make movies with their production company, advertise the films and products in their magazine, show it on their television channel. For example Beavis and Butt-Head Do America on costed $11 million to make and made a profit on $70 million, but Disney’s The Lion King made a profit of $1 billion due to them making merchandise, TV show, broadway shows. When films are made by conglomerates they generate more profit than a box office filmed would. Ownership BBC ownership BBC The BBC is neither public nor privately owned, it is a trust and is funded by license payers. On the BBC trust website it has in bold letters ‘getting the best out of the BBC for license fee payers’. This means that the BBC has a charter which tells the BBC the do’s and don’ts. The charter tells the BBC that the content on the BBC must be informative, educational, entertaining and the BBC should â€Å"Bring the UK to the world and the world to the UK†. As the BBC is a trust and run’s on the money that the incense payer give’s them, the BBC can just use the money they make on TV shows etc and put it into other shows they make. The advantage of a trust is that the money can just reused however the disadvantage is that the it has a charter that it must run by however I also see this as a positive ting because they know what things they are supposed to do. BBC services The BBC has multiply TV stations, radio stations, news channels and many other sector’s including online services, interactive media, music, miscellaneous etc Personally I like the BBC because 1. It has no adverts and I suppose the BBC don’t need adverts of products because the BBC is paid for by links payers and people that watch TV mostly hate adverts. However they do play adverts for programs on the BBC. This may increase viewers as it allows them to skip the things they don’t like but also the BBC has some of the best shows on the TV. Since the digital switch over I can only imagine that the BBC lost viewing figures. With the BBC becoming a trust in 2007, I think that the this has helped the BBC run a more organised service. It has gave the BBC strategy and overall it has made the BBC more successful. Since the trust came in in 2007 the trust has approved new services including iPlayer, HDTV, BBC Alba and the digital switchover. Ownership Bath Chronicle The Bath chronicle The Bath chronicle is a public company which means that it has the same advantages and disadvantages of Disney. However as Disney is much bigger, this means the rules are probably less important but still are still used. The newspaper which began in 1760 is now owned by Northcliff media. As the chronicle is a newspaper it must write about things in Bath but it can mention some major things outside Bath but most of the stories are based around local area. So I suppose this must be an advantage as they still have some freewill. I suppose that Northcliff media has Horizontal integration as they buy all different newspapers. The advantage of this can be that they can share the costs of production and management, the production can be done in bulk but may be a bit harder then a TV station or other media sector, as local papers may be made locally and have different content and deadlines and profits could be more. On the other hand disadvantages could include individuality being lost, no competitors left like a monopoly when there’s a lack of competition.