Attentional Control and Working Memory

Attentional Control and Working Memory Attentional control and working memory over top-down, bottom-up factors Complicated activities rely on attention to selectively focus on task-relevant stimuli while overlooking salient distractive stimuli. For instance, drivers need to able to attend to oncoming traffic while simultaneously ignoring distracting stimuli such as eating, looking after children, or hearing the bell of a cellphone receive a message. Most models pertaining to the selectivity of attention suggest that our attention is biased to either stimulus-based factors (bottom-up selection) and/or goal-driven factors (top-down selection) (Theeuwes, 2010). Physically salient properties of objects that draw attention involuntarily are bottom-up factors, in contrast, past knowledge, goals, and future plans are top-down factors that automatically guide our attention (Katsuki Constantinidis, 2014). Attentional control researchers have continuously argued whether goal-driven factors or stimulus-based factors have a larger influence on attentional control. However, this assumes that attention co ntrol involves a dichotomous selection between stimulus-based factors and goal-driven factors. This is an assumption that is incorrect and does not consider attentional control research that exists beyond this dichotomic viewpoint (Vecera et al, 2014). Past theories of attention focusing on the biases between goal-driven (top-down) and physically salient stimuli (bottom-up) do not take into consideration findings that persist outside of these factors, such as, the influence of experience with distractors on future search tasks. Attentional control, using working memory of distractor experience and strong biases, is a more effective posit than the dichotomic bias between goal-driven factors and physically salient factors. Although the dichotomy of bottom-up and top-down does not account for selection biases that are not goal-related nor physically salient, it still provides a highly acceptable theory of attentional control. The first visual sweep is completely driven by stimuli (Theeuwes, 2010). Theeuwes (2010) claims that the most physically salient item drives attention during the first visual scan, it is not until later in time that visual selection is biased in a top-down manner. This top-down manner involves feedback processing and voluntary control based on willful plans and current goals. Theeuwes (1992) found that when looking for a circle among diamonds of all the same color, the response time was a lot slower when one of the diamonds was red. Their study demonstrated that salience has an impact on visual attentional control. Goal driven selection matches targets that most fit the observers goal template. For example, when at the supermarket, if the goal is to buy a red apple, the observer wi ll prioritize red items. Overall, the bottom-up and top-down model offers a much more simplistic approach to attention and is one that can be easily accepted due to its lack of complexity in reasoning. For instance, it is easy to comprehend that items that pop out are more likely to grab attention, as well as, current selection goals of the on looker. However, this theory suggests that irrelevant items are not learned and cannot be used in future search tasks. Both stimulus-based and goal-driven factors influence attentional control, however, researchers have recently started to notice the impact experience has on the selective nature of attention (Awh et al., 2012). For example, participants point out noticeable, color targets quickly if the target-color is repeated throughout subsequent trials (Maljkovic Nakayama, 1994). They found that even when observers have a strong stimulus-based bias towards the target, experience strengthens this bias. Accordingly, priming of pop out of targets in repeated trials demonstrates the ability of experience to change the efficiency and overall efficacy of attentional control (Lee, Mozer, Vecera, 2009). These findings further support the idea that experience can influence attentional control, an idea that is not supported by bottom-up and top-down theories. In contrast to research done in favor of bottom-up, top-down posits, one memory system that falls in favor of experience and attentional control is priming of pop out (PoP). PoP occurs when individuals can point out a target faster if the essential feature of that target is constant in subsequent trials (Maljkovic Nakayama, 1994). In their study, they had their participants look for a colored diamond and had them identify if the diamond had a feature missing from either side. They found that PoP helped individuals and increased their response times. Their findings suggest that by continually showing a targets defining features, it reinforces the selective bias towards that targets features. In a similar vein, Tulving and Schacter (1990) found that representation systems based on perception allow for perceptual priming to occur. These representation system process new information in short-term memory. This short-term memory hastens the processing of similar information in future task s. Thus, when the visual information sweep frequently encounters similar items to process, these items are processed in a faster manner because short-term memory already has a memory trace of that item. Priming of pop out further demonstrates how learned experience with physically salient items benefits subsequent search tasks. It demonstrates that passive priming can provoke strong selection biases that have nothing to do with goal-driven selection. The bottom-up, top-down attentional control model does not consider these findings. Large amounts of research on attentional selection cannot be accounted for by the tendency to group attentional control in either top-down or bottom-up factors (Awh et al., 2012), for example, memory. There are two types of memory that have different roles and first need to be distinguished. Visual working memory depictions are different from visual long-term memories (VLTM). Visual working memory depictions are held for a limited amount of time, while visual long-term depictions continue throughout time (Luck, 2008). The constant maintenance of information limits the length of time for which visual working memory (VWM) depictions are upheld in memory. Lastly, VWM can only hold three to four items at the same time, while VLTM depictions are not bounded to a specific amount of objects (Brady et al., 2008). Although VWM is important in memory, VWM, in regards to attentional control, is specifically important for building experience with distractor rejections, but, is not useful for fut ure use. Visual long term memory (VLTM) uses information (information that is no longer relevant to the task) encoded in the past to guide attention (Fan Turk-Browne, 2016). In their first experiment, Fan and Turk-Browne (2016) found that VLTM for the associated location of a target guided spatial attention during visual search for the target, even when this location was not relevant to the task. Their second experiment expanded on these findings by discovering that VLTM for the associated color of a target influenced attentional capture in a different task. Memories can guide attention toward associated features, even when these features were encoded incidentally and were never relevant to any task (Fan Turk-Browne, 2016). An items features are automatically retrieved from long-term memory based on environmental cues encoded into working memory. These working memory representations bias selection toward items perceived in the world that match with features in memory through react ivation. An example of this would be shopping at a supermarket frequently gone to. When shopping at the local supermarket looking for your favorite cereal, for example, you are less likely to be distracted by other grocery items because you know where youre going and do not have to scan the visual area as often as opposed to it being the first time at that specific store. Observers find targets more easily when knowledge is given beforehand concerning the physical features of the target, like location, identity, and color (Moher Egeth, 2012). This is a process known as visual cueing. Observers find targets more easily, when they are told beforehand, not to look at certain irrelevant areas of the display areas that will not have any targets pop up. For example, an individual is more often than not to find their friend at a mall if told that their friend will be wearing a bright yellow shirt. In the same manner, Woodman and Luck (2007) found that targets were located faster if distractor items that were in the color that had to be ignored were present versus the distractors not being there at all. They concluded that participants used a template for rejection wherein items that match any beforehand features that had to be ignored, could be avoided during search, thus, items possessing the feature that had to be ignored were quickly rejected, ultimatel y, minimizing the size of the search. Knowing what not to look for reduces the number of items needed to be scanned, inadvertently reducing the time it takes to search through items. Further extending current research on the theory that individuals can use cues to bias attention away from salient distractors, individuals need experience with distractors before the distractors can actually be ignored (Cunningham Egeth, 2016). Experience with irrelevant stimuli can improve search in tasks. Learning to ignore features can result in a benefit in search tasks because time spent learning about these features, that need to be ignored, enhances its ability to be used by individuals in future search tasks (Cunningham Egeth, 2016). Results from their experiment found that within the same task, observers only benefited from cues that were consistent and not by cues that changed trial by trial. This demonstrates that cues can only be beneficial in search tasks if the cues are repeatedly shown ; developing a more concrete trace in long term memory in which participants can use. The mentioned studies establish that memory is an important part of the attentional selection process. The concept of memory cannot be put into a category that is either stimulus-driven or goal-driven, but rather makes its own valid case in the plethora of selection phenomena. Biased competition proposes that attentional control mechanisms occur when several neuronal axons land in the same receptive vicinity (Desimone Duncan, 1995). They found that when several stimuli fall into one receptive field, a neuron has multiple choices as to which of these stimuli it should respond to; this is quite an uncertain process. However, attentional mechanisms solve this uncertainty through two processes: attention is biased towards matching target objects with templates held in VWM. And, attention is biased towards items that are physically salient. Objects that are held in VWM are preferred over objects that are not because cells that have the objects features show higher rates of activity (Miller Desimone, 1994). Features of items in the external world are represented by these cells held in VWM, thus, the higher the activation rate, the more probable these neurons are to reach supra-threshold and fire an action potential when an external item matches that of the ite m in working memory. In support of experience and attentional control, biased competition reveals that past experience directs learning towards novel characteristics in settings and plays an important role forming the long-term memory system (Hutchinson et al., 2016). Frequent studies of attention have looked at task-related goals and its effect on memory encoding, but not much research has investigated the role of memory guiding itself during selection (Awh et al., 2012). According to Hutchinson et al. (2016), memory allows for the brain to differentiate between old information (information in which the individual has already encountered) and new information that will give the best representation of the surroundings. Thus, in circumstances that involve both the presence of old and new information, old information will affect how new information is processed and interpreted. Biased competition further supports that experience has an effect on what enters the memory system, which then, subsequently affect s the attentional systems use of templates in the prioritization of certain items. Cases that cannot be explained by the traditional dichotomy of attentional control can be further expanded by reward control. Although attentional selection can be voluntary, in the case of goal-driven tasks, subsequent selection can be provoked be rewards. Hickey et al. (2010) had participants look for a diamond shape while also ignoring irrelevant color stimuli at the same time. Participants were given a low or a high monetary reward depending on whether they answered right. The researchers found that rewards could bias attentional selection to either the target or to the irrelevant stimuli trial after trial.ÂÂ   For instance, if the target color stayed the same on subsequent trials, participants had a fast response time after given a high monetary reward. However, when the distractor had the same color as the previous target, reaction times were slow after given a high monetary reward. This study suggests that monetary reward influenced attention towards the color that was gi ven the high reward, irrespective of whether the color was associated with the distractor or the target. Several studies have shown that attentional selection is biased towards monetary reward. These findings cannot be explained by the voluntary, top-down or the physically salient, bottom-up attentional control dichotomy. Monetary reward further demonstrates that the dichotomic posit of attentional control is one that is incomplete and that monetary reward only expands on the present findings related to selection phenomena. Rewards are one of the strong biases that have a significant influence on selective processes. When encountering physically noticeable distractors, the experiences built on these distractors allows individuals to focus in future search tasks. This finding reveals that experience with physically noticeable distractors, and not only target templates held in working memory, benefits the high functionality of attentional control. Like further posits of attentional controls dependence on experience, learning to reject irrelevant stimuli depends on visual long term memory. This is an acceptable finding to grasp because long term memory possesses the ability to direct attention to target items in the present and later on, and, away from distractors. This finding further validates that attentional control cannot be explained by purely using the dichotomy of goal-driven and physically-salient-driven efforts. Rather, attentional control is an active process founded on creating experience with specific objects. Consequently, attentional control is a skill that is increasingly sharpened a s we gain experience out in the world. By not having much experience, the skills used in controlling attention is rather basic and depends on the simple use of the physical noticeability of object features. However, as individuals experience increases with certain tasks, the skills involved in attentional control sharpens and focuses on specific features. Once our attention is focused on a specific set of features, top-down control of attention can operate more efficiently. The importance of attentional control can be further seen in everyday life, especially in the realm of mental health. Several findings have found that there is a high correlation between those who suffer with mental illnesses and levels of attentional control. Individuals who have Alzheimers disease, for example, have trouble maintaining goal-directedness (Coubard, et al., 2011). They found that Alzheimers disease affects the ability of switching attention, suppressing, and preparing attention for random events. Further, individuals who suffer from schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have a fast response time in tasks when levels of anxiety and depression are lessened (Sarter and Paolone, 2011). Emotional processing is an important of human interaction and communication. Low attentional control would hinder the ability to shift attention away from potentially threating information which would increase ones susceptibility of developing harmful psychological effects (Fergus et al., 2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is another mental illness that is also affected by attentional control. Individuals with PTSD and low attentional control show attentional avoidance (Schoorl et al., 2014). Attentional avoidance is the concept of biasing attention away from threatening situations. These threatening situations serve as triggers that remind individuals with PTSD of the traumatic events they have experienced. This cognitive avoidance can be dysfunctional becaus e individuals with PTSD do not face threatening stimuli head on and avoid it, which, deprive them of the chance to realize that the traumatic event will not occur again (Schoorl et al., 2014). This was only the case when post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms were high and attention control levels were low. Works Cited Awh, E., Belopolsky, A. V., Theeuwes, J. (2012). Top-down versus bottom-up attentional control: A failed theoretical dichotomy. Trends In Cognitive Sciences, 16(8), 437-443. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.06.010 Brady, T.F., Konkle, T., Alvarez, G.A., Oliva, A. (2008). Visual long-term memory has a massive storage capacity for object details. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(38), 14325-14329. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0803390105 Cunningham, C. A., Egeth, H. E. (2016). Taming the white bear: Initial costs and eventual benefits of distractor inhibition. Psychological Science, 27(4), 476-485. doi:10.1177/0956797615626564 Coubard, O. A., Ferrufino, L., Boura, M., Gripon, A., Renaud, M., Bherer, L. (2011). Attentional control in normal aging and Alzheimers disease. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 353-367. doi:10.1037/a0022058 Desimone, R., Duncan, J. (1995). Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention. Annual Reviews of Neuroscience, 18(1), 193-222. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ne.18.0030195.001205 Fan, J. E., Turk-Browne, N. B. (2016). Incidental biasing of attention from visual long-term memory. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(6), 970-977. doi:10.1037/xlm0000209 Fergus, T. A., Bardeen, J. R., Orcutt, H. K. (2012). Attentional control moderates the relationship between activation of the cognitive attentional syndrome and symptoms of psychopathology. Personality And Individual Differences, 53(3), 213-217. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.03.017 Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., Theeuwes, J. (2010). Reward Changes Salience in Human Vision via the Anterior Cingulate. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(33), 11096-11103. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1026-10.2010 Hutchinson, J. B., Pak, S. S., Turk-Browne, N. B. (2016). Biased competition during long- term memory formation. Journal Of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(1), 187-197. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00889 Katsuki, F., Constantinidis, C. (2014). Bottom-up and top-down attention: Different processes and overlapping neural systems. The Neuroscientist, 20(5), 509-521. doi:10.1177/1073858413514136 Lee, H., Mozer, M.C., Vecera, S.P. (2009). Mechanisms of priming of pop-out: Stored representations or feature-gain modulations? Attention, Perception, Psychophysics, 71(5), 1059-1071. doi: 10.3758/APP.71.5.1059 Luck, S.J. (2008). Visual short-term memory. In S.J. Luck A. Hollingworth (Eds.), Visual Memory (pp. 43-85). New York: Oxford University Press. Maljkovic, V., Nakayama, K. (1994). Priming of pop-out: I. Role of features. Memory Cognition, 22(6), 657-72. doi: 10.3758/BF03209251 Miller, E.K., Desimone, R. (1994). Parallel neuronal mechanisms for short-term memory. Science, 263((5146), 520-522. doi: 10.1126/science.8290960 Moher, J., Egeth, H.E. (2012). The ignoring paradox: Cueing distractor features leads first to selection, then to inhibition of to-be-ignored items. Attention, Perception, Psychophysics, 74(8), 1590-1605. doi: 10.3758/s13414-012-0358-0 Sarter, M., Paolone, G. (2011). Deficits in attentional control: Cholinergic mechanisms and circuitry-based treatment approaches. Behavioral Neuroscience, 125(6), 825-835. doi:10.1037/a0026227 Schoorl, M., Putman, P., Van Der Werff, S., Van Der Does, A. W. (2014). Attentional bias and attentional control in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal Of Anxiety Disorders, 28(2), 203-210. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.10.001 Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form. Perception Psychophysics, 51(6), 599-606. doi:10.3758/BF03211656 Theeuwes, J. (2010). Top-down and bottom-up control of visual selection. Acta Psychologica, 135(2), 77-99. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.02.006 Tulving, E., Schacter, D.L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247(4940), 301-306. doi: 10.1126/science.2296719 Vecera, S. P., Cosman, J. D., Vatterott, D. B., Roper, Z. J. (2014). The control of visual attention: Toward a unified account. In B. H. Ross, B. H. Ross (Eds.) , The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 60 (pp. 303-347). San Diego, CA, US: Elsevier Academic Press. Vogel, E.K., Woodman, G.F., Luck, S.J. (2006). The time course of consolidation in visual working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance,32(6), 1436-1451. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.32.6.1436

Midsummer Nights Dream: Shakespeare vs. Michael Hoffman Essay

Midsummer Night's Dream: Shakespeare vs. Michael Hoffman A Midsummer Night’s Dream is one of Shakespeare’s most popular and frequently performed comical plays (Berardinelli). The play transformed into a cinematic production by Michael Hoffman has not changed in its basic plot and dialogue, but the setting and some character traits have. The play setting has been gracefully moved from 16th century Greece to 19th century Tuscany (Berardinelli). The addition of bicycles to the play affects the characters in that they no longer have to chase each other around the woods, but can take chase in a more efficient fashion. As far as characters are concerned, Demetrius is no longer the smug and somewhat rude character we find in act 1, scene 1 (Shakespeare pg. 6, line 91), but rather a seemingly indifferent gentleman placed in an unfortunate circumstance set to delay his wedding to Hermia. Perhaps the most noticeable change in the character set from stage to film occurs in the characters of Puck and Nick Bottom.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Puck, or Robin Goodfellow, is established in the play as the jester to the King of Fairies, Oberon. He first appears in Act 2, Scene 1 when he and another fairy discuss the disagreement between Oberon and Titania are having. The fairy gives us some indication of Puck's character as she describes how Puck â€Å"frights the maidens of the villagery† and â€Å"Misleading the night wanderers† (Act 2.1, line 35). When Titania refuses to give up the boy servant that Oberon wants, he comes up with a plan to steal the child, and enlists Puck's help to do so. Oberon is fully aware of Puck’s desire to have a good time at the expense of others, but trusts him with the task of retrieving the flower to make Titania fall in love with â€Å"Lion, Bear, Wolf, or Bull.† (Act 2.1, line 180) The idea here is to convince Titania to hand over the changeling boy while she is infatuated with a beast. Being attracted to mischief, Puck seems excited to be taske d to this adventure, and claims to return â€Å"Within forty minutes† (Act 2.1, line 176) so that they can get started on their plan.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Puck describes his harmful behavior as if it is all logically consistent. He says he â€Å"Sometimes lurk in gossip’s bowl,† but does not think he takes anything too far. A lot of the humor that Puck brings to the play comes across in a subtle manner. For example, after he places the flower on Lysande... ...age. Instead of laughing at Bottom, the film generates a feeling of sorrow for his character. When the wine is poured on him when the craftsmen first meet, Bottom takes an obvious emotional blow, so one can see how he would artificially inflate himself with the false perception of being a wonderful actor. When chosen to perform for Thesseus’s wedding, the players are very nervous and turn to Bottom for comfort. They look up to and respect Bottom for his confidence and acting ability, but Bottom later makes a fool of himself in the play by over dramatizing the part of Pyramus, especially when he performs the death of Pyramus. Michael Hoffman’s adaptation of A Midsummer Night’s Dream brings a classical play to a modern audience and makes it an exciting and humorous experience. This is accomplished most notably with the direction he gives to the two characters discussed. The animated humor of Bottom and the slightly more subtle badgering of other characters brou ght forth by Puck creates a certain amount of attachment to the movie by the viewer. The cinematic version of Shakespeare’s play is well adapted to a modern audience, especially through the characters of Puck and Nick Bottom.

Peter Cook and E. E. Cummings Essay -- Biography Biographies Essays

Peter Cook and E. E. Cummings      Ã‚  Ã‚   Contemporary poets have made interesting additions to modern and post-modern poetry as a collective whole. They have given unique insights into the nature of modern poetry and provided a broader understanding into the purpose and concept of poetry as an art form. One contemporary poet of importance is Peter Cook.    Peter Cook is a contemporary deaf ASL poet. He incorporates American Sign Language, mime, dance, and storytelling into his performance of his poetry, which is written in American Sign Language and translated into written or spoken English. For instance, in the Flying Words Project, he performed his poetry in ASL while Kenny Lerner performed the same poetry orally (A Deaf Poetics). The most interesting aspect of his poetry is the visual aspect of his performance of it. Seeing the words on the page is not enough to understand any of his poems, but they must be seen, ideally with an understanding of ASL (Graz erzÃ…  hlt). One of his poems performed during the Flying Words project was videotaped.    poetry poetry poetry is shot . . . circling, revolving, exploding hits the open window . . . and it tastes delicious it's loaded into the magnum and is shot back into your heart poetry is the painter and the portrait . . . (The Best Minds of Our Generation)    To watch this performed, however, is a much different experience than simply hearing it voiced. This is similar to some of E. E. Cummings' poems which are visually arranged on the page in such as way to enhance the meaning of the poem aside from simply hearing the words aloud. Cummings' use of punctuation and spacing, breaking up words and carefully arra... ...ed to modern poetry as a form of expression. While pre-modern and classical poetry often focused on rhyme and meter, two poetic devices which have no meaning to deaf poetry, modern poetry has provided a much freer view of poetry that also looks at poetry as a visual art form. This view was, in part, brought about by the works of such poets as E. E. Cummings, and evolved into such intriguing projects as the Visual Words project at RIT, and the Flying Words project of Peter Cook.    Sources Cited: Cummings, E. E. Selected Poems. Liveright, New York. 1994.   http://www.tales.org/kuenstler/cook_eng.htm, Graz erzÃ…  hlt 2001   http://poetry.about.com/library/weekly/aa061097.htm, A Deaf Poetics, part III - Poetry - 6/10/97   http://www.poetspath.com/rm/flying.ram, The Best Minds of Our Generation (The Allen Ginsberg video is interesting, too)   

How the Vietnam War Effected the American People and the American Presi

?The Vietnam War was fought during 1960 to 1975. It began as an attempt by Communist guerrillas?in the South to overthrow the ?government of South Vietnam. The struggle widened into a war between South Vietnam and North Vietnam and ultimately led to a international conflict. The United States and some 40 other countries supported South Vietnam by supplying troops and the?USSR and the People's Republic of China furnished munitions to North Vietnam and the Vietcong. ?Despite the massive American aid, the VC numbers continued to increase. By November 1961, the VC fighting forces had grown from the ?2,000 fighters that had been left after Diem's ruthless anti-Communist ?campaign in 1957, to nearly 16, 000. Regardless of American weapons and money, the VC was winning the support of the villagers.?The US military response to the deteriorating position in South ?Vietnam was to apply more military force. The Joint Chiefs of Staff?wanted six US divisions and 200,000 men sent immediately to So uth ?Vietnam. In response, Kennedy refused to send in US?ground forces. Under Kennedy, the US commitment remained at an?advisory level. On November 22 of 1963, a tragic event took place. President John F. Kennedy was shot and killed while riding in a limousine through the streets of Dallas. The same day, Deputy Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as President. Johnson further increased the number of ?advisors and equipment being sent to Vietnam. He wanted to declare war, destroy North Vietnam and Communism as soon as possible, even if ?he had to sacrifice his plans for a ?Great Society.? ? Losing the Great Society was a terrible thought, but not so terrible ?as the thought of being responsible for America's losing a war to the ?Communists. Nothing co... ... the right thing, and the ?US had a right to stop what it thought was wrong. In conclusion, I believe that the Vietnam War had a massive impact?upon US society and domestic politics. The war bitterly divided the ?nation and caused protests and political conflict between supporters ?and opponents. It ruined Johnson's chances of being re-elected ?president in 1968 and even damaged Bill Clinton when he stood for the ?presidency in 1992. It may be that after more than 20 years the war ?now causes fewer problems in the United States. But some of the ?effects of the war have remained. The Pentagon Papers proved that ?American governments had misled the people and even lied to them about ?the war. As a result, many Americans are much less willing to believe ?what their government tells them. Today, governments won't win back the?trust of these Americans that easily.

Intercultural Tensions

Theme 1) Insiders and Outsiders: Although strategies for reducing intergroup tensions do exist, it is unlikely that misunderstandings and hostility can ever be entirely eliminated: agree or disagree. Name: Student #: Seminar Section: Professor: Class: Course Code: Due: Submitted: It is through extensive research in international relationships with the ever-present theme of insiders and outsiders that this essay has been cultivated. While strategies to reduce intergroup tensions exist; religious, ethnic and racial reasons will continue to cause violence and disputes in the international community and will never come to an end. For centuries, discrimination between races has caused harm in society through slavery and segregation. Ethnic cleansing, ethnic pluralism, multiculturalism and any other attempts made to bring ethnicities together or to separate them are too often the causes of disputes and wars. Religion has produced an immeasurable amount of damage worldwide to society, and is one of the largest creators of separation between people. The above statements will be examined further in the following portion of the document. It will use; wars, disputes, bad political decisions and the past thousand years of history to express the point that intergroup tensions will always exist. Religious tensions Religion is one of the greatest proponents for violence between people of all time. Christianity has caused wars since it was erected roughly two thousand years ago, not to mention, the religious wars that were fought before that time. Some explain the violence as consequences of different religion’s dogmas, to their specific faith. For instance, if a person lives their life abiding by the Ten Commandments and following Jesus then hey can go to heaven. However, that means that they must sacrifice their ability to steal, kill, covet thy neighbour’s wife, et cetera. Now, if a person from another religion is also sacrificing certain actions so that they can reach their promised afterlife, then there is a direct conflict on a religious basis in that monotheistic world. If these made up people both bel ieve that there is only one god, and they are both under different expectations in order to be allowed into the holy afterlife, then of course there will be conflict. When considered on a much larger scale, the conflict becomes increasingly dangerous. The war between the United States and Iraq right now was started over religion. The Islamic terrorist organization Al-Qaeda attacked U. S. soil on September 11th 2001 in the name of Allah, which caused the U. S. to retaliate. Currently, the war is still prevailing, seven years later. There are many efforts to end the war in Iraq however after analysis of the situation, the answer is that the soldiers must stay there as a present force. Ethnic Tensions Persistent clashes among ethnicities are a major indicator of the never-ending hostility and misunderstanding of cultures. Ethnic pluralism has caused countries to revaluate their heterogeneousness, labour migration and expulsion, which has caused interethnic catastrophes that often result in civil war. When different ethnicities start migrating into an area the locals of that land become worried about preserving their culture. This worrying, usually evolves into negative impacts on the community due to hostility felt towards the forced change on the locals. The term â€Å"ethnicity† is defined as a way to identify characteristics, such as cuisine, traditions, common ancestors or nationality to a specific group. From that, the volatile actions and conflicts that are disputed among ethnicities are more understandable when considering the family involved. The sense to protect ones family may provoke a person to fight, â€Å"If group members are potential kinsmen, a threat to any member of the group may be seen in somewhat the same light as a threat to the family. † (Horowitz, 1991, p. 4). The hostility against other ethnicities comes from the inherent will to protect ones family members. One of the most famous ethnic disputes is that which is fought over the Gaza Strip, â€Å"Perhaps the longest-lasting, and still problematic ethnic clash is that of the Israelis and the Palestinians. † (McCannon, 2006, p. 411). Even after establishing peace for over half a decade in the 1990s the Israelis and Palestinians returned to war with each other. The strategy of a cease-fire between Palestine and Israel temporarily stopped the war between the two countries, however, the persistency of continuous ethnic conflict prevailed. Racial Tensions Tensions between races are still very common all over the world and discrimination will continue to separate races. A recent study proves that in the new millennium people of different colours feel the need to have more distance in between them. The traditional more abrupt style of racism is less commonly used, however, now it is a quieter type of discrimination. The term used for the racism today is called institutional racism. It is a way of tactically disadvantaging specific races through policies and barriers to employment. It keeps the black community in the poor houses with the low paying jobs and bad health. An example of institutional discrimination hurting the ethnicities and races is bank loans. The bank has set up a system of which they follow in order to see who is applicable for a loan. One of the features of the bank’s system is calculating who is in the highest financial percentile group. Seeing as white males have dominated the business world for hundreds of years the bank considers the white male to be in the top percentile group. This would then give the white male the advantage for a loan over a black male because their average incomes are not as much as the white male group. The way this bank system works in the first place is only benefiting white males, which is discriminatory towards all other races and ethnicities. The whole political and institutional system needs to be reviewed and reconstructed in order to create equality among all races. This is unlikely to happen soon because it is a functional system, and possible replacements could wreak havoc across the U. S. So the racial discriminated against populous is left to wait for a new system that is not racist. The intergroup conflict continues once again without resolve. Conclusion To compile everything covered so far, the following are strong proponents for why the intergroup tensions are forever existent. The religious wars that have been continuously destroying lives and whole countries for thousands of year will not ever reside in peace. The large scope of ethnicities around the globe have the opportunity to reframe from wars and complete turmoil, however, they choose to continue fighting regardless of peace treaties. The racially discriminated against population in North America, primarily the United States, are subjected to many more years of institutional racism. Finally, to conclude the point that has been reiterated over and over again. Even though strategies to reduce intergroup tensions do exist, the global system will be plagued with hostility and misunderstandings because of religious, ethnic and racial conflicts. Works Cited 1. McCannon, J. (Ed. ). (2006). Barron's how to prepare for the ap world history advanced placement exam. New York City, New York: Barron's Educational Series. 2. Frymer, P. (2005). Racism revised: courts, labor law and the institutional construction of racial animus. American Political Science Review. 9, 373-387, 15. 3. Gonzalez, J. C. (2007). The ordinary-ness of institutional racism: the effect of history and law in the segregation and integration of Latinas /os in schools. American Educational History Journal. 34, 331-345. 4. Proudford, Smith, K. K. (2003). Group membership salience and the movement of conflict: reconceptualizing the interaction among race, gender, and hierarchy. The Journal of Philosophy. 19, 223-234, 11. 5. Williams, R. M. (1947). The reduction of intergroup tensions: a survey of research on problems of ethnic, racial, and religious group relations. The Annals of The American Academy. 1, 166-167, 2. 6. Wilson, J. Q. (2008). The downside of diversity. The Wilson Quarterly. 32, 67-68, 2. 7. Hughes, G. (2008). Words, war and terror.. English Today. 24, 13-17,5. 8. (2007). In god's name. The Economist. 385, 4. 9. Sekulic, D. , Massey, G. , & Hodson, R. (2006). Ethnic intolerance and ethnic conflict in the dissolution of Yugoslavia.. Ethnic & Racial Studies. 29, 797-827, 30 10. Horowitz, D L. (1991). Ethnic groups in conflict. Los Angeles, California: Berkeley University Press. 1-66, 4.

Byd Company Case Analysis Essay

1. BYD Company, Ltd. (BYD) is the existences second largest manufacturer of reversible batteries. Exhibit 1 shows that between 1999 and 2001, BYDs annual gross r purgeue grew three generation exceeding RMB 1.3 billion in 2001. base on the first four months of 2002, BYDs annual sales are expect exceed RMB 1.6 billion in 2002. Founded in 1995 by Wang Chuan-Fu, chairman and president, BYD has built its temper by becoming the largest Chinese supplier of lithium-ion batteries to cell phone manufacturers. Exhibit 3 shows that by 2002, BYD was among the top four manufactures cosmopolitan and was the largest Chinese manufacturer in some(prenominal)ly of the three main battery technologies (with or so 9% market share in Li-ion engineering, 31% market share in NiCd technology, and 8% market share in NiMH technology).Despite the charge of large Japanese competitors including Sanyo, Sony, and Matsushita in the global market and a large number of local Chinese firms, BYDs aim to improve the timber of products while keeping the price impression started winning it business from foreign companies. By doing so, BYD has positioned itself as a live leader in the batter constancy and has move towards cost receipts in manufacturing of its products. BYD show on the technology and product issuance by investing about 2% of the companys revenue in product and offset R&D. Since the cultivation of its first lithium-ion battery in 1997, BYD has do several improvements that increased the cycle life-time of its products. BYD moved from having no patents as of 1999 to place s hollow outs of patents as of the beginning of 2002.The manufacturing turn in terms of sequence of steps at BYD was similar to that at the competing Japanese firms. However, Japanese firms had closely of the processes machinemated and had to a greater extent dry-room space. This kind of set up infallible greater investment in uppercase equipment and accounted for an annual capital expenditure quintet to ten times more than that at BYD. The biggest threat to BYDs competitive advantage is the tough competition face up from the emergence of nearly 200 Chinese firms in the rechargeable battery market.Like BYD did, these Chinese firms too relied on comminute-intense production process. The deficiency of proper regulations in China allows the competitors to mate BYD processes easily. On the other hand, BYD faced a shortage of labor in Shenzhen because of the presence of large number of manufacturers located in that region. At BYD, 95% of the work personnel department on the battery production is childlike women who have come from smaller villages crosswise China. They would work here for a twain of years before returning to their stead villages. As a result of this migration pattern, BYD faced a turnover of 10% to 20% in its manufacturing workforce.2. The core competencies of BYD are bombing Technology (by changing the product materials to benefit them less sensitive to humidity), R&D department, world Resource Management (providing housing, food, and wellness insurance to workers, discipline traning, job revolution to reduce monotony, social activities and promotions), cheap labor and Manufacturing process (labor plus jigs equals automation). Of the above mentioned core competencies, battery technology, R&D department, Human Resource Management, and cheap labor are transferrable to the self-propelled business. However, the manufacturing process which is not automated is not transferrable to the self-propelled business. From the resources perspective BYD should enter the auto industry because getting Qinchuan elevator car Company offers BYD rarified resources much(prenominal) as production permits and shoot down for its refreshing motorcar factory, which are fundamental barriers for entry for bracing competitors, at a reasonable price. These resources coupled with the BYDs mobile resources could result in a self-ma de enterprise.3. The Chinese auto industry is general attractive. There is huge growth expect in the Chinese demand for automobiles from 1 million sedans in 2002 to potentially 6 million by 2010. harbourn up this evaluate growth in demand for automobiles, several Chinese auto manufacturers had partnered with foreign manufacturers, such as General Motors, Toyota, and Volkswagen to sell their vehicles. As shown in Exhibit 13, the production ability of major firms in china slightly exceeded 2 million units in 2002, this jut out is expected to reach 3.5 million units by 2012 as shown in Exhibit 14. Yes The Chinese auto industry is attractive to BYD.Given the expected growth and demand in the auto industry, combined with Chinese brass having stopped issuing production permits for fresh self-propelled companies, there are really few remaining opportunities to get in to this booming auto industry. Moreover, BYD is getting a good bargain as the assets of the state-owned Qinchuan Auto are being sold at a cheaper price. The state owned auto manufacturers without foreign partners accounted for 25% of auto sales in China. Many of the SOE manufacturers did not even have R&D departments. Because close to of the automobile parts were imported, similar models of cars cost more in China than in USA.The existing foreign joint ventures were marketing the vehicles at prices that gave them margins of 10% to 20%. Considering the menses situation, there is room for low-priced entrants. Wang endlessly dreamt of applying Li-ion battery technology to develop an electric car vehicle. Using newer battery technology and bring together it cheaply, the vehicle could be competitively priced and portray a way for China to ricochet forward in an industry and technology in which it had previously lagged other nations. Wang was as well as excited about applying BYDs dusky capabilities in process engineering employ so successfully to design new methods of battery productio n that gave BYD a evidentiary cost advantage over global competitors to automotive manufacturing.4. In addition to religious offering OEMs a one-stop solution for the outsourced manufacturing of their products, BYD should also dumbfound Qinchuan Auto Company. Because of the huge potential for the automotive industry in China and rattling few available opportunities, this is the right piece for BYD to enter the automotive industry. As Qinchuan Auto Company already has a progress to in the market, with its flagship product Flyer, BYD should continue exchange Flyer along with other upgraded new models of car. BYD should also invest in automating the manufacturing process and R&D department.It should ensure that most of the auto parts are internally or locally manufactured in order to keep the costs at minimum and margins high. The company should invest to a great extent in infrastructure needed to offer to the foreseen demand in the Chinese automotive industry. It should inv est heavily in acquiring quality manpower by offering them good salaries, perks etc. If capital is a challenge, because BYD could partner with foreign manufacturer and yield them a platform to sell their products in the Chinese automotive industry. This will give BYD enough time to closely study the Chinese automotive industry and take necessary steps.

Nature of the Consumer Decision Making Essay

Introduction instanter much than ever in such(prenominal) a highly competitive argumentation world were separately crossroad and value offered is competing with identical and alternative crossings, it is purport-or-death from the businesses dit of envision that their reaping or help is of the highest standard possible. Correctly marketed a harvest-feast could be infinitely successful, whilst on the other hand a poorly marketed output could be the death of it. From a marketers perspective it is them qualification the harvesting what it is, from deciding consumers wants and demand, to infering these in an end product that satisfies these ineluctably. In order for this to happen marketers must take into accounting the vast amount of cognitive cognitive operationes the consumer goes done before, during and later on fashioning a leverage. This report provides a find away into the consumers finale fashioning surgery, looking much than depth into the role motif plays in these lasts and the respective(a) theoretical manikin frame becomes that atomic number 18 aimd in this process. The report testament besides let online how a marketer give the sack use this knowledge to service consumers in their purchase choices and closings through and throughout the report when applicable.The consumer decision making processFour views of consumer decision makingThe consumer decision making process is one that the consumer makes when making a get. There be different posers that nominate been produced in metre to support this idea, with four generalist views of consumer decision making, to each(prenominal) one highlighting different variables. These be the Economic view which focuses on the idea that the consumer makes decisions establish on rational behaviour, i.e. address verse benefits, leave down I get a good ample product service for my money?. A nonher view that marketers hold is the passive view in which opposes the stinting view by believing consumers to be unassertive to every marketers in vest, stating that consumers are impulsive buyers, easily manipulated with merchandising efforts. Thirdly is the Emotional view which whitethorn be seen as irrational behaviour found on lifeings rather than roughly(prenominal) logical reasoning, i.e. decisions based on love, hope, sexuality etc. Fourth and probably the most prolific one would be the 5 lay out (cognitive process).The 5 horizontal surface process outlines the cognitive functioning consumers go through when making decisions. Marketers preface frequently refer tothis computer simulation when geting how to effectively influence the consumers choices. It shows that more(prenominal) consideration goes into the decision making process than just a purchase decision and dismantle continues post-purchase. Although the consumer does not always necessarily follow each full stop, some metres they whitethorn skip exemplifys when making more impulsive decisions or routine purchases.For drill when considering this model it would be nave to think the consumer will put the same amount of thought into buying a pack of chewing gum at a advancedsagent to buying a new car. The purchase of chewing gum is generally an impulsive decision that does not require much preceding(prenominal) thought, whereas the purchase of a car is less routine and requires a lot of thought into varying f betors such as cost verses benefits. (Consumer Decision Making Process, 2008) Schiffman and Kanuk describe the process as universe viewed in 3 discrete but interlocking dresss, the input stage, process stage and output stage. Below is an extended model of this process, which includes outside influences and psychological factors.Figure 1External Influences sooner the consumer even so has the thought of making a purchase, they are already influenced by two sources subconsciously, the first being the firms selling efforts (the four Ps) w hich creates an awareness for the product via marketers attempts to inform and persuade the consumer through products, promotion, price and carry of distribution . Secondly, sociological influences reveal an underlying vestigial need to fit in to legitimate genial groups, lifestyles, cultures etc. that are not right off commercially related i.e. A neighbour or champ owning a product that an individualist likes, and then by chance creating a want for it. Consumer decision making modelThe decision making model as shown in figure 1 could reflect not lone(prenominal) the cognitive view to decision making, but besides the wound up view as it incorporates various socio-cultural input (as previously mentioned) that could be described as emotional based, and also psychological processes(discussed later)involved when existingly making the decision. tang at figure 1 the first stage of the decision process is the needrecognition, this is where the consumer realises a need for som ething. This could come from peradventure running out of something and needing more, or receiving information on a product from an external source that leads them to want it. This would logically then lead the consumer to the second dissipate of the process the pre-purchase attempt, this is the point where the consumer begins to process the thought of what product may satisfy their need, they may base their ideas on previous experience and memories (psychological factors), or may opt to attend for useful information to friend in their decision ( staple fiber internet search).At this point the consumer is drawing up information from external sources and at the same time has psychological factors influencing their decision. i.e.Consumersmotivation, perception, learning, personality and offices. Solomon (2006) addresses the fact to how much actual searching takes mall, stating that younger, better educated people will spend more time searching/fact finding before making a deci sion in comparison to an older person, who has less procurable convey to search. He also hypothesizes that women are more inclined to research products. A generalisation that is value keeping in assessment from a marketers perspective as based on this surmisal it would be logical to focus trade efforts at these for a more effective result. For ensample it would not be cost-efficient for a business to waste money trying to tug a product to a social group that tends to shake off limited internet access, i.e. older people.The third stage of the process the military rank of alternatives is probably the longest part of the decision making process in basis of time as the consumer has tenfold factors to consider. At this point the consumer, devoted previous knowledge built up in the previous stage, now has to filter from the potentially hundreds of available possibilities. Perhaps utilize base cost v benefits and perceived risk of alternatives, or even more complicated co gnitive processes requiring more effort. The considered doctors of choices are known as the evoked set The quaternate stage enters the output area of the decision making process, this is where the consumer has made a decision and makes the purchase from the set of possibilities acknowledged in the evoked set, this would be classed as a trial purchase as the consumer has not previously tested the product.The other suit of purchase would be the repeat purchase in which the consumer skips steps of the process be social movement they already number out a want for the product payable to alreadyusing it and needing more ( flaw loyalty). at a time purchased the next and final stage of the process would be the post purchase evaluation, consumers now evaluate their purchase decision, deciding whether they are totally happy with the product, or perhaps would arrest preferred one of the alternatives. At this point it is full of life for the marketers to make sure the consumers feels they made the right decision in choosing their product, as next time they will take their business elsewhere.Psychological factorsThe psychological factors in the human psyche that influence the input stage of the model are key tools that a marketer brush aside use to utilise their relationship with the consumer. A good sympathizeing of each can help the marketer focus efforts based around the consumers way of thinking. Consumer Personality this is what separates humans and reflects individual differences, personality is always consistent and enduring. Sigmund Freud famously split the mingled subject into three interacting parts, ID, Super self and Ego. The ID being your basic ineluctably ( hungriness, thirst and sex). Superswelled head being the way the people act out their primitive needs in a socially acceptable manner (restraining impulsive ID feelings). eventually the Ego is the consumers conscious susceptibility to experience the demands and constraints of the previous two. Freud believed that an individuals successfulness in tackling each stage will in turn reflect personality.For example a person can be fixated in later life through a dis gaiety of needs in development stages in early life. i.e. if a child does not feel loved when developing it could leave them striving to feel it in later life, or perhaps opponent this lead them to not seek love overdue to not experiencing it (a defining characteristic in any personality). From a marketers opinion a person could be easily manipulated in later life due to decisions they have made in earlier stages. Consumer scholarship the active psychological process in which stimuli are selected and organised into meaningful patterns, (Buchanan, 1991). Perception is how humans interpret information they make pick up through sensations like sight, taste, hearing, smell and touch, and then respond to whence to create a perception. For example from the marketers perspective, it is crucial that the perception of their product or service to the consumer is good i.e. effective stimuli,as if the consumer gains a detrimental perception of a good they will not wish to purchase. Marketers can seek to improve brand perception through trials i.e. if consumer enjoys the product they will re-purchase based on previous experience.This would be one example of assisting a consumer in a purchase. Consumer Learning refers to a humans capacity to pick up knowledge, through information or experience on a product, directly or indirectly i.e. a consumer does not have to have tried a product to have a perceived familiarity with it, they may know somebody who has a familiarity and has told them about it, given them enough of an arrangement to either like or dislike it. The general idea that when a product is completely unknown to the consumer that the quality of it is reflected in price. Consumer Attitudes An attitude in marketing terms is defined as a general evaluation of a product or service formed over time (Solomon, 2008). An attitude satisfies a personal motiveand at the same time, affects the shopping and buying habits of consumers.Dr. Lars Perner (2010) (Understanding Consumer Attitudes, 2010). For the marketers it is up to them to understand why certain attitudes exist and either work with them or seek to change them. Consumer Motivation defined by Schiffman and Kanuk (2010) as being the driving mogul within individuals that impels them to action. It could be referred to as the processes that make believe people to behave as they do, from a psychological need to how they seek to satisfy it. Marketers can use identified motives to develop a better marketing mix giving them a better targeted marketing strategy.The role of motivationMaslows Hierarchy of askDr Abraham Maslow formulated this hierarchy of needs as a hypothesis behind how human motivation works, a theory now widely accepted. Similarly to Freudian beliefs (the ID) that basic physiological needs have to be f ulfilled in order to reach high satisfaction. i.e. fare, water, air, shelter and sex. Generally these needs are genial by the majority (unless homeless, then these would be intact needs). Once satisfied the next stage would lead to safety needs not only physical safety but also safety in terms of finance, stability, education etc. Once an individual believes the previous needs aremet they then consider social needs. These needs include love, affection and acceptance, all of which are socially desired by everyone as we are motivated to find good relationships. Once these needs are generally met, the ego needs of human nature come into play. The ego needs can be of two types, inward say i.e. self-esteem, success, personal satisfaction, or outwardly directed ego needs such as prestige, status and reputation. The supreme need is for humans to reach self-fulfilment, to become the crush of their potential (according to Maslow this need is rarely satisfied because generally ego nee ds are not richly satisfied)Alderfer (1972) describes there being two types of needs, a basic need (innate), innate needs being the basic aim of needs relating to survival i.e. hunger, thirst and sex, and also Acquired needs which are picked up in life as a response to the environment and cultures. A theory echoed by Freud and also Maslow. Although Alderfer revised the last mentioned stages of Maslows hierarchy of needs by realising some of the middle stages overlap, confusion of these needs could lead a marketer to appeal to the wrong type of consumer. So Alderfer changed Maslows five stage process into a more simple three stage one, which is similar in the fact it represents levels of needs (pyramid). Although Alderfers model states that humans may be motivated by more than one need and non-reliant of satisfaction of each need for progression i.e. an artist who may place growth needs above existence.An article by Mark Rodgers called Challenging Maslow refers to the period of t ime in which Maslow has created this theory on motivation, stating that given the time in which it was created would not depict modern views to human motivation. Rodgers believes that Maslow produced his theory in a time when his home sphere had just emerged from a world war and out of the greatest depression of the 20th century, needs at this time would be lower as in physiological and safety. Whereas nowa mean solar days with more than 50 geezerhood of economic growth, the average person enjoys a more stable lifestyle and allows them to have higher cerebrate needs such as egoistic and self-actualization. (Rodgers, 2004) How marketers can apply understanding of these processes and motivation to assist consumers in purchasing decisions Developing on what has been previously stirred upon it would be a fairjudgement to say that marketers have the ability to manipulate consumers entirely.Once they have understood consumers needs and wants they can use them once more when producing a marketing plan to reposition a product or perhaps launch another. exploitation theories such as Maslows, marketers can nameise to precise motivational needs, using powerful marketing tools such as advertising. Advertisements are cues employ to arouse needs, marketers consequently creates ads to aid consumer choices. Advertising techniques can attract assistance by appealing to needs (innate) or perhaps having such an image to create a new need or desire (acquired). They can advertise a product to directly stimulate levels of motivation i.e. Maslows self-fulfilment or Freuds super ego through making a product come along visually emphasised as a certain amount of perfection which would satisfy top level needs.Physiological arousal can be used to stimulate consumers most basic needs, for example a visually sexy advertisement would attract the precaution of most adults, or perhaps an advertisement of a new burger at a fast food chain would focus to basic biogenic hunger needs. Cleverly marketed an advert can appeal to multiple needs, making a product seem snappy for a consumer to own as it is seen as unanimous many needs, creating a surd chance of consumers purchasing this product.Looking into an emotional arousal view of marketing it can be seen that a lot of kindliness based organisations use emotional advertising to founding a sad response from the audience. For example an advert seeking to create an awareness and revenue for famished children of third world countries would seek to discomfort the viewer by highlighting their struggle to find satisfaction of their biological needs and contrast this with our perhaps extra ego and self-fulfilment needs. This in turn triggers an emotional response, and perhaps self-disappointment which would lead the individual to donate sympathetically.ConclusionTo conclude, there has been a build-up of various consumer decision based theory and framework in this report that helps give an understanding to how the processes work, leading into motivation and various theory and models behind them. The theory can be applied directly when producing a marketing mix or segmenting the market, as it offers a clear insight into how thehuman mind operates when considering purchase decisions. Another key aspect of marketing, by gaining an understanding of the consumers wants and needs before creating a product and marketing campaign that could ultimately fail and cause substantial losses financially.Marketers nowadays have to be at the top of their game due to deluge markets with similar products they have to be able to overstep the benefits of their product to the consumer and how it may differentiate from competitors. Marketers have the ability to create a want for a product that would not previously have been desired and therefore have the ability to manipulate peoples needs throughout their lifetimes through this incredibly strong tool and the added benefit of ease of distribution channels of info rmation through advancements in modern day technology.